The current study attempts to explain how judge sentencing varies as a response to the legal and extralegal factors of drug offenders. The variables of interest in this research are the recidivism factors among drug offenders. The utilization of ordinary least squares (log-level regression) gives results that mostly coincide with prior studies. However, the empirical evidence found indicates that the roles, gender, religion, and birthplaces of offenders reveal a different fact. This paper acknowledges the limitations related to the data of ethnicity, judge characteristics, and demographic situation in each province. Hence, this model could be improved in future research.
References
Albert, D., & Steinberg, L. (2011). Judgment and decision making in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00724.x
Bagaric, M. (2019). Redefining the cricumstances in which family hardship should mitigate sentence severity. UNSWLJ, 42(1), 154–187.
Beccaria, C. M. di, & Davies, R. (1995). On Crimes and Punishments and Others Writings. In R. Geuss & S. Quentin (Eds.), Beccaria:’On Crimes and Punishments’ and Other Writings (pp. 1–86). Cambridge University Press, London. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442688735-005
Becker, G. S. (1968). Crime and punishment: An economic approach. In The economic dimensions of crime (pp. 13–68). Palgrave Mcmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1086/259394
Bellair, P. E., & Kowalski, B. R. (2011). Low-skill employment opportunity and african American-white difference in recidivism. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 48(2), 176–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427810391536
Bentham, J. (1781). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. BLTC Research. https://www.utilitarianism.com/jeremy-bentham/#one
Blowers, A. N., & Doerner, J. K. (2015). Sentencing outcomes of the older prison population: An exploration of the age leniency argument. Journal of Crime and Justice, 38(1), 58–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2013.822161
Brown, J. M., & Sorensen, J. R. (2014). Legal and Extra-Legal Factors Related to the Imposition of Blended Sentences. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25(2), 227–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403412465431
Cook, A., & Haynes, S. H. (2020). Imprisonment pains , reentry strains , and perceived likelihood of reoffending of reoffending. Criminal Justice Studies, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2020.1771332
Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L., & Nagin, D. S. (2011). Prisons Do Not Reduce Recidivism: The High Cost of Ignoring Science. Prison Journal, 91(3), 48S-65S. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885511415224
Directorate General of Correction. (2018). The Latest Data of Inmates. Sistem Database Pemasyarakatan. http://smslap.ditjenpas.go.id/public/grl/current/monthly/year/2019/month/7
Doerner, J. K., & Demuth, S. (2010). The independent and joint effects of race/ethnicity, gender, and age on sentencing outcomes in U.S. federal courts. Justice Quarterly, 27(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902926197
Doerner, J. K., & Demuth, S. (2014). Gender and Sentencing in the Federal Courts: Are Women Treated More Leniently? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25(2), 242–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403412466877
Drago, F., Galbiati, R., & Vertova, P. (2011). Prison Conditions and Recidivism. American Law and Economics Review, 13(1), 103–130. https://doi.org/10.1093/aler/ahq024
Epstein, L., Landes, W. M., & Posner, R. A. (2013). The Behavior of Federal Judges : A Theoretical & Empirical of Rational Choice. Harvard University Press.
Franklin, T. W. (2017). Sentencing Outcomes in U.S. District Courts: Can Offenders’ Educational Attainment Guard Against Prevalent Criminal Stereotypes? Crime and Delinquency, 63(2), 137–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128715570627
Freiburger, T. L. (2009). The Effects of Gender, Family Status, and Race on Sentencing Decisions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28(2), 378–395. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.901
Freiburger, T. L. (2011). The Impact of Gender, Offense Type, and Familial Role on the Decision to Incarcerate. Social Justice Research, 24(2), 143–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-011-0133-8
Gibbs, B. R., & Lytle, R. (2020). Drug Court Participation and Time to Failure: an Examination of Recidivism Across Program Outcome. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(2), 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-019-09498-0
Hilinski-Rosick, C. M., Freiburger, T. L., & Verheek, A. (2014). The Effects of Legal and Extralegal Variables on the Sentences of Sex Offenders. Victims and Offenders, 9(3), 334–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2013.845637
Huebner, B. M., DeJong, C., & Cobbina, J. (2010). Women coming home: Long-term patterns of recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 27(2), 225–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902870486
Iles, G., Bumphus, V. W., & Zehel, L. (2011). Assessing the relevance of legal and extralegal factors in felony drug sentencing: The case of Michigan. Criminal Justice Studies, 24(3), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2011.592730
Kim, B., Spohn, C., & Hedberg, E. C. (2015). Federal sentencing as a complex collaborative process: Judges, prosecutors, judge-prosecutor dyads, and disparity in sentencing. Criminology, 53(4), 597–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12090
Lai, G., Fransiska, A., & Birgin, R. (2013). Drug Policy in Indonesia. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2290259
Lee, M., Ulmer, J. T., & Park, M. R. (2011). Drug sentencing in South Korea: The influence of case-processing and social status factors in an ethnically homogeneous context. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 27(3), 378–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986211412574
Lim, C. S. H., Silveira, B. S., & Snyder, J. M. (2016). Do judges’ characteristics matter? ethnicity, gender, and partisanship in texas state trial courts. American Law and Economics Review, 18(2), 302–357. https://doi.org/10.1093/aler/ahw006
Lindsey, T., & Nicholson, P. (2016). Drugs Law and Legal Practice in Southeast Asia (Vol. 53, Issue 9). Hart Publishing Ltd. Oregon. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Logan, M. W., Morgan, M. A., Benson, M. L., & Cullen, F. T. (2019). Coping with Imprisonment: Testing the Special Sensitivity Hypothesis for White-Collar Offenders. Justice Quarterly, 36(2), 225–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1396488
Lorkowski, J. A. (2003). Bounded Rationality in Decision Making Under Uncertainty: Towards Optimal Granularity (Issue Mm). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62214-9
Maddan, S., Hartley, R. D., Walker, J. T., & Miller, J. M. (2012). Sympathy for the Devil: An Exploration of Federal Judicial Discretion in the Processing of White-Collar Offenders. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(1), 4–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-010-9094-y
Mankiw, G. N. (2008). Principle of Microeconomics (J. E. Thomas & K. Yanos (eds.); 5e ed., Issue c). Cengage Learning. https://doi.org/10.15713/ins.mmj.3
Manski, C. F. (2013). Predicting Outcomes under Policies That Mandate a Treatment. In Public Policy in an Uncertain World (pp. 53–58). Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674067547
Martin, D. A. (1962). The Denomination. The British Journal of Sociology, 13(1), 1–14.
Mears, D. P., Cochran, J. C., Bales, W. D., & Bhati, A. S. (1973). Recidivism and Time Served in Prison. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 106(1 (Winter 2016)), 83–124.
Micle, M. I., Gabriel, O., & Săucan, D. Ş. (2013). Legal and Extralegal Factors Influencing Judge’s Penal Decisions. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78, 697–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.378
Miller, M. K., Maskaly, J., Green, M., & Peoples, C. D. (2011). The effects of deliberations and religious identity on mock jurors’ verdicts. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 14(4), 517–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210377458
Ministry of Finance. (2018). RKAKL DIPA. Direktorat Jenderal Anggaran. http://www.anggaran.kemenkeu.go.id/in/home
Ministry of Religious Affairs. (2016). Ministry of Religious Affair in Number. Public Relation Bureau. http://www.kemenag.go.id
Pindyck, R. S., & Rubinfield, D. L. (2013). Microeconomics (D. Battista (ed.); 8th Editio, Issue c). Pearson Education Inc. https://doi.org/10.15713/ins.mmj.3
Probowati, Y. (2001). Requisitoir Public Prosecutor and Personality of Judicial Authorities in the Criminal Process in Indonesia [Doctoral dissertation, Universitas Gajah Mada]. http://etd.repository.ugm.ac.id/home/detail_pencarian/103
Reitler, A. K., Sullivan, C. J., & Frank, J. (2013). The Effects of Legal and Extralegal Factors on Detention Decisions in US District Courts. Justice Quarterly, 30(2), 340–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2012.668925
Republic of Indonesia. (2009). Indonesia Narcotics Law. Ministry of Law and Human Rights. https://peraturan.go.id/peraturan/index-lembaran-negara.html?LembaranNegaraSearch%5Bjenis_peraturan_id%5D=11e449f35c25e4d0b18e313231373039&LembaranNegaraSearch%5Bnomor%5D=35&LembaranNegaraSearch%5Btahun%5D=2009&LembaranNegaraSearch%5Btentang%5D=
Republic of Indonesia. (2012). Juvenile Criminal Justice System. Ministry of Law and Human Rights. https://peraturan.go.id/peraturan/index-lembaran-negara.html?LembaranNegaraSearch%5Bjenis_peraturan_id%5D=11e449f35c25e4d0b18e313231373039&LembaranNegaraSearch%5Bnomor%5D=11&LembaranNegaraSearch%5Btahun%5D=2012&LembaranNegaraSearch%5Btentang%5D=
Republic of Indonesia. (2018). Ministrial Decree on The Treatment for Elderly Prisoners. Ministry of Law and Human Rights. https://peraturan.go.id/peraturan/index-permen.html?PermenSearch%5Binstitution_id%5D=27&PermenSearch%5Btentang%5D=&PermenSearch%5Bnomor%5D=32&PermenSearch%5Btahun%5D=2018&PermenSearch%5Bnomor_bn%5D=&PermenSearch%5Btahun_bn%5D=
Rusvalita, E., Komalasari, A., & Dewi, F. G. (2017). The Effect of the Implementation of Good Governance on Organizational Performance with the Implementation of the Whistleblowing System as a Moderating Variable at the Directorate General of Taxes. Journal Accounting and Finance, 22(1), 1–25.
Ryon, S. B., Chiricos, T., Siennick, S. E., Barrick, K., & Bales, W. (2017). Sentencing in light of collateral consequences : Does age matter ? Journal of Criminal Justice, 53, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.07.009
Simon, H. A. (1972). Theories of Bounded Rationality. In C. B. McGuire & R. Radner (Eds.), Decision and Organization (Vol. 1, pp. 161–176). North Holland Publishing Company.
Smith, M. S., & Schriver, J. L. (2018). Judges’ sentencing decisions with older offenders. Psychology, Crime and Law, 24(2), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2017.1390117
Sorensen, T., Sarnikar, S., & Oaxaca, R. L. (2012). Race and gender differences under federal sentencing guidelines. American Economic Review, 102(3), 256–260. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.3.256
Spalek, B. (2011). Islam , Crime and Criminal Justice (B. Spalek (ed.); 5th ed.). Routledge.
Starr, S. B. (2015). Estimating gender disparities in federal criminal cases. American Law and Economics Review, 17(1), 127–159. https://doi.org/10.1093/aler/ahu010
Steffensmeier, D., Kramer, J., & Ulmer, J. (1995). Age differences in sentencing. Justice Quarterly, 12(3), 583–602. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829500096151
Suryadinata, L. (2015). State and “Chinese Religions†in Indonesia: Confucianism, Tridharma and Buddhism during The Suharto Rule and After. In C. B. Tan (Ed.), After Migration and Religious Affiliation: Religions, Chinese Identities and Transnational Networks (pp. 19–42). World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814590006
Sutton, J. R. (2013). Symbol and substance: Effects of California’s three strikes Law on Felony sentencing. Law and Society Review, 47(1), 37–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12001
Ulen, T. S. (2013). Rational choice theory in law and economics. In Encyclopedia of law and economics (Vol. 27, Issue 1, pp. 790–818). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100213
Van Slyke, S., & Bales, W. D. (2012). A contemporary study of the decision to incarcerate white-collar and street property offenders. Punishment and Society, 14(2), 217–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474511434437
Van Slyke, S., & Bales, W. D. (2013). Gender dynamics in the sentencing of white-collar offenders. Criminal Justice Studies, 26(2), 168–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2012.729707
van Wingerden, S., van Wilsem, J., & Johnson, B. D. (2016). Offender’s Personal Circumstances and Punishment: Toward a More Refined Model for the Explanation of Sentencing Disparities. Justice Quarterly, 33(1), 100–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2014.902091
Vigorita, M. S. (2002). What you don’t know can hurt you: First-time offenders and sentence severity. The Justice Professional, 15(2), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/08884310214023
Ward, J. T., Hartley, R. D., & Tillyer, R. (2016). Unpacking gender and racial/ethnic biases in the federal sentencing of drug offenders: A causal mediation approach. Journal of Criminal Justice, 46, 196–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.05.008
Weissman, S. H., Busch, K. G., & Schouten, R. (2010). The Evolution of Terrorism from 1914 to 2014. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28(2), 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl
Wickrama, K. A. S., Simons, L. G., & Baltimore, D. (2012). The Influence of Ethnicity and Adverse Life Experiences During Adolescence on Young Adult Socioeconomic Attainment: The Moderating Role of Education. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(11), 1472–1487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9764-9
Wistrich, A. J., Rachlinski, J. J., & Guthrie, C. (2015). Heart versus head: Do judges follow the law or follow their feelings? Texas Law Review, 93(4), 855–923.
Wooldridge, J. M. (2013). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. In Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach (Fifth). South-Western, Cengage Learning. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351140768-8
